[p.23]

SYLLABUS, &c.
———♦———

INTRODUCTION.

   GENERAL plan of the Course.
   Of Chemical Attraction—between substances of what kind, and under what circumstances, it is capable of being excited—its effects in altering the sensible properties of bodies—takes place only between definite proportions of matter.
   Of the properties of a Chemical Compound with respect to those of its constituent parts—neutralization of these properties the result of their mutual saturation.
   Of the different degrees of force with which one body is disposed to combine Chemically with many others, taken separately: whence the doctrine of Chemical Affinity, or Elective Attraction.
   Of Analysis, or the separation of the constituent parts of a Chemical Compound. Electricity the most powerful Agent of Chemical Analysis—arrangement of the various forms of matter at the opposite Electric poles.

---

---

ON LIGHT AND HEAT.

   Mutual connection of Light and Heat not universal. Prismatic division of the rays of Light, with the [p.24] Chemical effects of these on substances exposed to their influence.
   Evolution of Light and Heat not exclusively characteristic of Combustion; but in general the result, and at the same time a measure of the intensity, of Chemical action. Other sources of Light and Heat—Electricity—Compression, &c.
   The terms “Caloric” and “Heat” compared.
   Of the absorption, reflection, and radiation of Heat— of its transmission through various bodies; and of the economical application of the knowledge deduced from the foregoing properties.
   Of the expansion of bodies by Heat: and of the specific gravity of different substances; or of the same substance at different temperatures.
   Of the different states in which the same body is capable of existing under different degrees of Heat; and of various chemical processes depending on this, as Evaporation, Distillation, &c.
   Of the decrease of Temperature, which takes place during the Solution of Solids, and the Evaporation of Liquids: Mr. Walker’s experiments on Freezing Mixtures.
   Of the increase of Temperature produced by the Condensation of Steam, &c.; and by the Congelation of Liquids.
   Dr. Black’s opinion of the nature of Heat deduced from the foregoing phenomena.

---

---

ON GASEOUS BODIES.

   Of those substances which retain an aëriform state under every common alteration of temperature—meaning [p.25] of the term “Gas”; and why gaseous bodies are said to be permanently elastic.
   Of the tendency which all kinds of aeriform bodies have to penetrate each other, so as to become equably mixed.
   Of the means of insulating aëriform bodies for the purpose of examining their properties. Dr. Hales’s Experiments—Pneumatic apparatus.

---

---

ON ATMOSPHERICAL AIR.

   Of the nature of the Atmosphere considered chemically.
   Why formerly supposed to be an Element—truth of this opinion doubted by Mr. Boyle, Dr. Mayow, and others; in consequence of the Chemical alteration produced in various substances by exposure to the Atmosphere.
   Lavoisier’s examination of Atmospherical Air by means of heated Quicksilver; and by the combustion of Sulphur, Phosphorus, &c.—consequent increase of weight, and alteration of other properties, in those bodies.
   Diminution in volume and corresponding decrease in weight of the air employed in Combustion, &c.—character of this residuary portion of the air—Nitrogene Gas of modern Chemistry. Restoration of the quantity of air lost, and of the properties destroyed, during the above-mentioned processes.
   Comparison of the ancient and modern Theories of Combustion, &c.—Stahl’s Phlogiston— Phlogisticated [p.26] and Dephlogisticated Air of Dr. Priestley—Oxygene and Azotic Gas of Lavoisier.
   Of Oxygene—means of obtaining Oxygene Gas in a separate state: its remarkable properties with respect to the phenomena of Combustion: Iron made to burn in it.
   Of Nitrogene—means of obtaining Nitrogene Gas in a separate state.

---

---

ON WATER.

   Natural history of, as far as connected with Chemistry. Solvent power over various substances—difference between what are technically called Hard and Soft Waters.
   Contained in a state of Chemical combination in many solid substances, forming a class of compounds called Hydrates.
   How obtained in its purest form.
   Why till lately esteemed an Element—Sir Isaac Newton’s opinion respecting an inflammable principle contained in it—instances of the necessity of the presence of Water for the production of Inflammable Air—Inflammable Air produced by bringing Water into contact with ignited Iron—also by the passage of the Electric fluid through Water—proportional Oxydation of the Metals employed in the above experiments.
   Lavoisier’s opinion of the composition of Water— Inflammable Air burnt in contact with Oxygene Gas —proportional quantity of Water produced by this [p.27] combustion—hence Inflammable Air now called Hydrogene Gas.
   Of Hydrogene—exists as a constituent principle of animal and vegetable matter in general—the source of flame in all the common forms of fuel. Means of obtaining Hydrogene Gas in a pure form—its properties.

---

---

ON CARBON.

   Of the principle called Carbon—its wide diffusion in nature—the Diamond—Plumbago, or Black Lead.
   Means of obtaining the purer forms of Carbon—its properties—its compounds.
   Carburetted Hydrogene Gas, formerly called Heavy Inflammable Air—produced during the distillation of wood and coal, &c.; also in the natural decomposition of vegetable matter.
   Of various compounds of Carbon and Hydrogene— oils and resinous substances, &c. Of Alkohol, or Spirit of Wine—its solvent power over resins: Varnishes, and Medicinal Tinctures—decomposition of these by water.
   Of the preparation of various kinds of Ether.

---

---

ON SULPHUR.

   Natural sources and forms of Sulphur—means of separating it from its compounds.
   Sulphuretted Hydrogene Gas—its solubility in water: Harrowgate Water.
   [p.28] ON PHOSPHORUS.
   Mode of procuring it from calcined bones, &c. its properties.
   Phosphuretted Hydrogene Gas—remarkable inflammability of this Gas.

---

---

ON ACIDS.

   Definition of, why difficult—general characters—solubility in Water—change certain Vegetable blue colours to red.
   Formation of Acids partly explained in the history of Atmospherical Air—in some instances rapidly decomposed by Oils, so as to produce immediate Inflammation.
   Of the Radical or Base of Acids. The same base in some instances capable of combining with different proportions of Oxygene.
   Of Vegetable Acids.

---

---

ON CARBONIC ACID.

   Immediate formation of, by combustion of Charcoal-produced during the process of Respiration—in what situations met with already formed—extricated from all kinds of common Marble and Limestone by other acids and by heat—Fixed Air.
   Carbonic Acid Gas—specific gravity of—effects on Respiration and Combustion—Vats of fermenting Liquor—Grotto del Cane, &c.
   [p.29] In what proportion met with in Atmospherical Air— absorbed by Water, and other Liquors, at a low temperature; communicating to them Acid characters, &c.— Nooth’s Apparatus for impregnating Water, &c. with Carbonic Acid Gas—why retained with difficulty by these Liquors.

---

---

ON SULPHURIC ACID.

   Combustion of Sulphur in pure Oxygene Gas.
   Sulphurous Acid Gas—composition and properties of this Gas—its solubility in Water: alteration of the properties of this solution by absorption of Oxygene.
   Sulphuric Acid. Hydro-Sulphuric Acid. Means of obtaining the Sulphuric Acid of Commerce: Oil of Vitriol; Acid, or Spirit, of Vitriol—its properties: great weight; strong attraction for moisture—digested with Nitre acquires the property of readily dissolving Silver (Aqua Reginæ): important application of this compound in recovering Silver from plated ware.
   Of the action of Sulphuric Acid on Starch—production of Sugar.

---

---

ON NITRIC ACID.

   Mr. Cavendish’s discovery of its formation by passing the Electric spark through Atmospherical Air over water.
   Process for obtaining it from Nitre, &c. by means of Sulphuric Acid—relation of Nitric Acid to water; Hydro-Nitric Acid.
   [p.30] Decomposition of Nitric Acid, by heat; by the action of Metals, and other substances.
   Nitric Acid of Commerce; Aqua Fortis—whence its occasional colour—use of in Medicine—in Engraving—in separating Gold from Silver.

---

---

ON MURIATIC ACID.

   Method of obtaining it from Sea-salt by means of Sulphuric Acid—Spirit of Salt of Commerce.
   Muriatic Acid digested in various ways with Nitric Acid (Aqua Regia)—the resulting liquid remarkable for its power of dissolving Gold.
   Effect produced by the action of certain Metallic Oxyds on Muriatic Acid—present opinions respecting the nature of this effect. Chlorine; Oxy-muriatic Acid—application of in the process of Bleaching.

---

---

ON ACETIC ACID.

   Produced at a certain stage of Vegetable fermentation—general history of Vegetable fermentation—circumstances necessary to promote it. Vinous—Acetous —Putrefactive fermentation.
   Vinegar—concentrated by different means—effects thereby produced—Acetic Acid—Radical Vinegar.
   Acetic Acid distilled from various Spices, &c.; Aromatic Vinegar.

---

---

ON OXALIC ACID.

   [p.31] Met with, in a combined state, in the Oxalis Acetosella, &c.—how separated from these.
   Method of obtaining it from Sugar, Wool, Flour, &c. by digestion in Nitric Acid.
   This Acid a very strong test of the presence of Lime,

---

---

ON GALLIC ACID.

   Whence so called—in Vegetable substances of what nature principally found; and how separated—forms a black insoluble compound with Iron, the base of common Ink.
   Of the composition of Inks, &c.—action of Lemon-juice, &c. in destroying the colour of Ink.

---

---

ON PRUSSIC ACID.

   Origin of its name—various processes for obtaining it—why in general obtained in a combined state.
   Prussic Acid a good test of the presence of Iron in solution;—a test also of most metallic solutions.
   Prussiate of Iron (Prussian Blue)—reason why this has sometimes a green tinge; and how that tinge may be obviated.
   [p.32] ON ALKALIES.    Origin and subsequent application of the term.
   Sir H. Davy’s discovery of their metallic base, and the combination of this with Oxygene.
   Combination of Alkalies with Sulphur; Livers of Sulphur.
   Strong attraction for Carbonic Acid—Dr. Black’s discovery with relation to this part of the subject—Caustic, and Mild or Aërated, Alkalies.
   Combination of Alkalies with Acids in general; forming Salts of various characters. Definition of the generic term “Salt.” Crystallization, &c. of Salts.

---

---

ON POTASH.

   Potash of Commerce how, and in what state, obtained—various forms of it—Pearl-ash—Salt of Wormwood —&c. (Sub Carbonate of Potash.)
   Means of obtaining the common form of Caustic Potash (Hydrate of Potash)—its properties; and use in the analysis of Minerals—Liquor Silicum. Decomposition of Potash by the Voltaic Apparatus.
   Carbonate of Potash—partial decomposition by heat: Sub Carbonate of Potash.
   Nitrate of Potash (Salt-Petre—Common Nitre) natural history of this salt—artificial means of obtaining it—in what manner affected by various degrees of simple heat—phenomena that take place when Nitre is heated sufficiently in contact with combustible substances—composition and manufacture of Gunpowder—theory of its detonation.
   Of the Salt commonly called Oxy-muriate of [p.33] Potash—explanation of its fulminating properties; also of its decomposition by heat.
   Acidulous Tartarite of Potash (Cream and Crystals of Tartar)—deposited in an impure state from Wine—deflagration with Nitre—formation of Metallic Fluxes—Salt of Tartar—Acid of Tartar.

---

---

ON SODA.

   Soda of Commerce—various forms of it—Natron—Barilla—Kelp—Sal Sodæ—&c. (Sub-Carbonate of Soda.)
   Means of obtaining the common form of caustic Soda—properties of, and uses in the making of Soap and Glass; and why in these instances preferred to Potash.
   Sulphate of Soda (Glauber’s Salt) how affected by different states of the Atmosphere—great proportion of Water of Crystallization.
   Of Common Salt—present opinion respecting its chemical composition—its natural history—means of obtaining it by evaporation of Brine Springs, &c.
   Sub-Borate of Soda (Borax)—effects of heat on this Salt—Calcined Borax—Glass of Borax; use of in soldering Metals; in Medicine.
   Of the Triple Salt, Tartarite of Soda with Potash (Rochelle Salt).

---

---

ON AMMONIA.

   Composition of; and in what substances and situations met with—generated during certain Metallic solutions.
   [p.34] Properties of pure Ammonia—remarkable volatility—Ammoniacal Gas, rapid absorption of by Water.
   Sub-Carbonate of Ammonia (Salt of Hartshorn) obtained in an impure form by distillation of bone and other forms of animal matter—produced immediately in a solid form by the mixture of Carbonic Acid Gas with Ammoniacal Gas.
   Nitrate of Ammonia—decomposition of by the lower degrees of heat—effects of the higher degrees of heat on this Salt—inflammable without addition of any other substance.
   Of Sal Ammoniac—its natural history—various modes of obtaining it—produced immediately in a solid form by the mixture of Muriatic Acid Gas with Ammoniacal Gas—in what manner affected by heat. Uses; in soldering Metals—in tinning Iron—in obtaining pure Ammonia and Sub-Carbonate of Ammonia: processes for this purpose.

---

---

ON EARTHS.

   Sir H. Davy’s discovery of their metallic base. Enumeration of simple Earths hitherto discovered. Effects of the higher degrees of heat on Earths, taken separately, or combined.

---

---

ON LIME.

   Calcination of Lime Stone—loss of weight during the process—Quick Lime—Hydrate of Lime—Pure Lime—solubility of Lime in Water—properties of [p.35] Lime-Water—pellicle formed on its surface by exposure to Atmospherical Air. Use of Lime in the manufacture of Soap and Glass; in Metallurgy; in the making of Mortar—different kinds of Mortar, and reason why Mortar cannot be again used as such when once hardened.
   Carbonate of Lime (Calcareous Spar, Marble, &c.)— solubility in Water—formation of Stalactites, Sic.
   Sulphate of Lime (Gypsum, Selenite, &c.)—how affected by Fire—subsequent combination with Water— Plaster of Paris.
   Fluate of Lime (Fluor, or Derbyshire Spar)—phosphorescence and change of colour by Heat—use in obtaining Fluoric Acid. Properties of Fluoric Acid— power of dissolving Silex; whence employed in engraving on Glass.
   MAGNESIA.    In what natural earthy compounds met with—means of distinguishing it from Lime, with which long confounded.
   Medicinal preparations of this Earth—Calcined or pure Magnesia—Sub-Carbonate of Magnesia (Mild Magnesia)—Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom Salt).

---

---

ON ALUMINE.

   Whence its name, with means of obtaining it in a separate state—characters of its natural compounds— [p.36] nature and preparation of the Clay employed in the fabrication of Porcelain, &c.
   Composition of Lutes for the higher degrees of heat —Fire Bricks—Wedgwood’s Pyrometer.
   Disposition of this earth to combine with unctuous substances; and with colouring matter: Fuller’s Earth; Ochre, Bole, &c.
   Of Alum (Sulphate of Alumine with Potash or Ammonia)—natural history of this Salt—artificial methods of producing it—Alum Works at Whitby, &c. Use of Alum in Dying—nature of a Mordant—formation of a Lake or Colouring Compound—Printing of Linens, &c.

---

---

ON SILEX.

   General character of Siliceous Compounds—means of obtaining pure Silex.
   Composition of Glass—common flaws and defects, what owing to—annealing of Glass. Use of Manganese in Glass-making.
   Sir James Hall’s experiments respecting the slow and rapid cooling of vitrified substances—Reaumur’s Porcelain.

---

---

ON METALS.

   Opinions respecting their nature.
   Of Metallic Ores, and the various means of reducing them.
   Metallic Oxyds: their power of colouring Glass; uses In Painting; in Medicine.
   [p.37] Metallic Alloys—possess properties different from the simple Metals composing them—Solders of different kinds—Sir Isaac Newton’s fusible Metal.
   Action of Metals on Acids: solution therein not immediate.

---

---

ON PLATINA.

   Name derived from its appearance as commonly met with—solution in Aqua Regia—precipitation by Muriate of Ammonia—reduction; and properties when pure.

---

---

ON GOLD.

   Means of obtaining pure Gold—solution of impure Gold in Aqua Regia—precipitation by recently prepared Sulphate of Iron.
   Use of Silver in the refining of Gold; proportion employed—Quartation—subsequent separation or parting of the silver from the Gold by Nitric Acid—appearance of the Gold after the operation of parting; method of restoring its colour.
   Properties of pure Gold—why alloyed in the current Coin; and in other instances—Leaf Gold. Union of Gold with Quicksilver; Amalgamation— superficial application of gold to other substances— different kinds of Gilding: this employment why often injurious to health.

---

---

ON SILVER.

   [p.38] Means of obtaining pure Silver—properties, when pure—whence its tarnish by exposure to air—effects of Sulphuretted Waters on Silver—ready combination with Sulphur.
   Solution of Silver in Nitric Acid—crystallization of Nitrate of Silver, and alteration by Heat; Lunar Caustic—fulminating properties of Nitrate of Silver.
   Of the precipitate occasioned by adding any form of Muriatic Acid to a solution of Nitrate of Silver: Horn-Silver. Present opinions respecting the nature of this substance—in what manner affected by light and by heat—use of in giving a superficial covering of Silver to Dial-plates, &c.—method of applying it for this purpose.

---

---

ON QUICKSILVER.

   Ores of—ready means of detecting its presence— Quicksilver of Commerce, in what manner commonly adulterated—signs of its adulteration—principle of its purification by distillation.
   Oxyds of Quicksilver—black Oxyd—red Oxyd.
   Combination of Quicksilver with other Metals; Amalgams—silvering of Looking-glasses.
   Combination with Sulphur (Ethiops Mineral—Factitious Cinnabar)—preparation of Vermilion; height of colour, on what depending.
   Solution of Quicksilver in Nitric Acid—crystallization of Nitrate of Quicksilver, and decomposition by [p.39] heat—precipitation of Quicksilver from Nitric Acid by any form of Muriatic Acid.
   Of Corrosive Sublimate and Calomel; modes of preparing them. Present opinions respecting the nature of these substances.

---

---

ON COPPER,

   Copper Ores of Cornwall—of Anglesea—reduction of Copper Pyrites why difficult.
   Properties of pure Copper.
   Sulphate of Copper (Blue Vitriol) manufacture of this from Copper Pyrites—reason why small particles of Green are commonly found in Blue Vitriol—process for obtaining Copper in a Metallic form from this Salt by means of Iron.
   Action of Acetic Acid on Copper—preparation of Verdigris—common appearance of Verdigris of Commerce—danger of using Copper for culinary purposes how obviated.

---

---

ON LEAD

   Reduction of Lead from its Ores—Sulphuret of Lead (Potter’s Lead Ore, or Galena); proportion of Silver commonly found in it.
   Properties of pure Lead—how affected by long continued action of Air, &c. Oxyds of Lead—Massicot— Minium (Red Lead),
   Of Litharge; its preparation and uses.
   Effects of Vinegar on Lead—manufacture of White Lead (Carbonate of Lead).
   [p.40] Acetate of Lead—preparation of Goulard’s Extract. Super-Acetate of Lead (Sugar of Lead)—its sweet taste—means of detecting its presence in Wine, &c.

---

---

ON TIN.

   Ores of—preparation of the Cornwall Ore for reduction—reason why Tin has been supposed to be of a poisonous quality: this supposition entirely erroneous.
   Characters of pure Tin—Oxyds of Tin—effect of Oxyd of Tin on Glass.
   Alloy of Tin with Copper—instruments of War, &c. of the Ancients—composition of Bronze, Gun-metal, &c.—composition of Pewter. Application of Tin to Iron Plates, &c.
   Combination of Tin with Sulphur: Aurum Musivum.

---

---

ON IRON.

   Universal presence, and Ores of—reduction of Argillaceous Ores.
   First state of the Metal after reduction: Cast Iron —characters of cast Iron: probably alloyed with the metals of some of the Earths.
   Conversion of Cast Iron into Bar, or Forged Iron; by repeated exposure to heat, in contact with any form of Coal; by hammering. Bar Iron the purest state of the Metal.
   Conversion of Forged Iron into Steel, by heating in [p.41] close vessels in contact with Charcoal—properties of Steel—tempering of Steel—Case hardening of Iron instruments.
   Cast Iron, Bar Iron, Steel—theory of their Chemical difference—reason why Iron of different Furnaces and Forges differs often so much in quality.
   Sulphuret of Iron (Martial Pyrites, &c.)—use in procuring Sulphur—spontaneous alteration, and conversion into Green Vitriol: this imitated by artificial processes.
   Sulphate of Iron (Green Vitriol)—phenomena attending the solution of Iron in Sulphuric Acid—characters of the Salt resulting; how affected by Air, by Fire—use of in Dying, &c. already spoken of under the head of Gallic Acid.
   Carbonate of Iron—Chalybeate Springs—impregnation of Water with Iron by means of Carbonic Acid.
   Prussiate of Iron (Prussian Blue)—Vid. Prussic Acid.

---

---

ON ZINC.

   Properties of Zinc—its degree of malleability—joint action of Air and Fire upon it—inflammation—White Oxyd of Zinc.
   Use of Zinc in Brass-making—alteration of Brass by the higher degrees of heat.

---

---

ON ANTIMONY.

   Reason why its properties have been so much investigated.
   [p.42] Of the substance called Butter of Antimony—precipitation occasioned by adding Water to it (Powder of Algaroth).
   Of the medicinal preparations of Antimony.

---

---

ON COBALT.

   Ores of, frequently contain Arsenic in great proportion. Oxyd of Cobalt—use of in Enamelling—Zaftre —Smalt.
   Sympathetic Ink of Cobalt; effects of heat, and of Alkaline Sulphurets, on it.

---

---

ON ARSENIC.

   Of the Acid Character communicated to Arsenic by Oxygene.
   Of the common forms of Arsenic: its combination with Sulphur—Orpiment; Realgar; difference between these not ascertained.
   Of the use of Arsenic in Medicine; and means of detecting its presence.